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Almost everywhere in England is now below England’s 2040 target for PM2.5 air pollution, but still falling short of the WHO’s recommended limit.

Air pollution in England, specifically levels of PM2.5 (tiny particles that penetrate deep into the lungs), has halved since 2003, with a large and lasting drop during the COVID-19 pandemic. The fall has been particularly large for ethnic minorities. Despite this, almost everyone in England is still exposed to levels of air pollution that the World Health Organisation (WHO) associates with significant public health risks.

These are among the findings of new IFS research, funded by the Economic and Social Research Council, on air pollution across England over the last 20 years. Key findings include:

• Air pollution fell dramatically during the pandemic and has remained at these lower levels since. Between 2003 and 2023, average levels of PM2.5 in England fell by 54%. Two-fifths of that decrease occurred in 2020.
• Ethnic minorities were exposed to levels of air pollution 6% higher than average levels for white populations in 2023, down from 13% in 2003. This fall in the ‘ethnic pollution gap’ was initially down to ethnic minorities moving to less polluted parts of the country (largely moving out of London to a smaller city). Since 2019, however, areas with large ethnic minority populations (namely London and the Midlands) have experienced substantial decreases in air pollution, further shrinking the gap.
• Lower-income areas have persistently higher levels of air pollution than richer areas. In 2023, individuals in the top 20% most deprived areas experienced 8% higher average PM2.5 concentrations than those in the bottom 20%. There is no clear trend in this gap over the last two decades.
• Almost everywhere in England is now below England’s 2040 target for PM2.5, but still falling short of the WHO’s recommended limit. The share of the English population exposed to levels of PM2.5 above England’s 2040 target fell from 99% in 2003 to less than 0.1% in 2023. However, 96% of people still live in areas above the WHO’s more stringent recommended limit.

Bobbie Upton, Research Economist at IFS and an author of the report, said:

‘There is growing evidence that fine particulate air pollution is extremely damaging for health, particularly for children and the elderly. It is hard to fully explain the striking drop in air pollution that started in 2020, during the COVID pandemic. New clean air zones in several of England’s largest cities and reduced steel production may have both played a role. It is important for the nation’s health, and for reducing health inequalities, that progress continues to be made on reducing air pollution. The good news for government is that there are policies, such as supporting research and innovation in electrifying steel production, that both move towards net zero and reduce air pollution.’

Related content

• Exposure to air pollution in England, 2003–23 
• Air pollution in England by MSOA over time, measured by PM2.5 exposure, 2003 to 2023